Robonaut The Future Of Space Exploration

I.          INTRODUCTION :

The future of robots in space is not a question of human versus machine, but rather a combination of the best capabilities of human and machine to achieve something which surpasses the capabilities of either alone.

Hitherto mechanical devices sent into outer space operated either by teleoperation (continuous remote control of a manipulator) or through robotics (involving preprogrammed control of a manipulator). Humans control both. The distinction is that in the former case the tele-operators are controlled by humans remote in distance while in the latter, robots are controlled by humans in time (through computer programs).

Robonaut is the first step towards achieving a synergy between tele-operation and robotics and when it is launched into space in the year 2004-05 by NASA, it will usher in a new era in Space Exploration.

An Industrial Robot Defined…

The Robotics Industries Association (RIA) defines an industrial robot as:

“A reprogrammable, multifunctional manipulator designed to move materials, parts, tools or special devices through variable programmed motions for the performance of a variety of tasks.”

The term robotics was coined by Isaac Asimov in his science fiction story “Runaround” where he had portrayed robots built with safety features in mind to assist human beings. In his story, he established the three ‘Fundamental Laws of Robotics’..:

·         A robot may not injure a human being or, through inaction, allow a human being to come to come to harm.

·         A robot must obey the orders given to it by human beings, except where such orders would conflict with the first law.

·         A robot must protect its own existence as long as such protection does not conflict with the first & second laws.

             

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II.        ROBONAUT`S HISTORY [6]:

Robonaut has no precedence. However, there are two other types of devices, which can be considered as space robots. The first is the Remotely Operated Vehicle (ROV) which can be an unmanned spacecraft that remains in flight, a lander that makes contact with an extraterrestrial body and operates from a stationary position, or a rover that can move over terrain once it has landed. The second one is the most common type of existing robotic device and is the. Remote Manipulator System (RMS), or robot arm, most often used in the Manufacturing Industry and in the field of material handling..

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IV.       THE ANATOMY OF ROBONAUT

1) Hands [5] [9]

The Robonaut has two flexible, five-fingered hands. Each Robonaut Hand is similar in size & capability to that of a suited Astronaut’s Hand. The hand components are toleranced to perform acceptably under extreme temperature variations (+120°C to –100°C) as normally experienced in Extra-Vehicular Activity (EVA) conditions. Brushless motors are used to ensure long life in vacuum. All parts are designed to use proven Space Lubricants.

Each hand possesses Fourteen Degrees of Freedom. The forearm houses the motors & drive electronics, a two degree of freedom wrist and a five finger - twelve degree of freedom hand. The forearm measures four inches in diameter at its base & is approximately eight inches long. It houses all of its fourteen motors, 12 separate circuit boards, & the wiring for the hand.

To enhance its tool using ability the hand (Fig.1) is broken down into two sections: a Dexterous work set which is used for manipulation, & a Grasping set which allows the hand to maintain a stable hold while manipulating or actuating a given object. The Dexterous Set consists of two 3 degree of freedom fingers (pointer & index) & a 3 degree of freedom opposable thumb. The Grasping Set consists of two 1 degree of freedom fingers (ring & pinkie) & a palm degree of freedom. All fingers are mounted into the palm.

                                                The hands are Gloved (Fig.2) with Kevlar skins, which are soft fabric coverings, that provide the hands with an improved texture, grip, & clean anatomy that avoids snagging. Each Glove is equipped with 19 moderate resolution force sensors. Three sensors are located in each finger of the Glove, four for the thumb, & three for the palm. The effectiveness of the grasp can be verified using data from this Glove.

 2) Arms [5] [9]

Robonaut’s arms (Fig.3) are human scale manipulators designed to fit within the exterior volume of an Astronaut’s suit. Each arm is a dense packaging of joints & avionics. The endoskeletal design of the arm, houses thermal vacuum rated motors, harmonic drives, fail safe brakes & 16 sensors in each joint. Custom lubricants, strain gauges, encoders & absolute angular position sensors make the dense packaging possible.

The arm is covered by a skin made of a series of synthetic fabric layers structured to provide protection from contact & extreme thermal variations in the environment of outer space. The arms are mounted through 5” pitch joints. The joints (Fig.4) are equipped with a full complement of sensors which allows Robonaut to perform a variety of tasks in a larger workspace around & especially above the body.

 
The two arms are mounted to a central junction, with a third limb, called the ‘Tail’, & a fourth called the neck. The Tail is similar to the arm design, but on a larger scale. Robonaut can be configured for many lower body arrangements, with the Tail ideally suited to operate in zero gravity.

          

3) Head [5] [9]

Robonaut’s Head  consists of two eyes, a nose, & a neck with two degrees of freedom (the ability to nod up & down & shake left & right) that allows the teleoperator to point Robonaut’s camera as eyes.

The eyes  consist of 4 cameras, designed as eye pods. Each pod has a primary camera with zoom, focus, & iris control, & a secondary camera with wide angle view for peripheral vision, all mounted on an independent verge mechanism.

Robonaut’s nose has an infrared thermometer mounted in the nose slot to enable it to measure and identify dangerously hot or cold objects in space before touching them. The built in red laser point places the resulting ‘red dot’ on an object & the object’s temperature can be read.

The neck drives are activated and controlled through a 6 axis Polhemus sensor mounted on the teleoperator’s helmet. The neck’s endoskeleton is covered in fabric skin, which is fitted into & under the helmet. The neck joint is similar to the arm joint & is controlled with the same real time control system.

Robonaut’s head is provided with a Helmet made of Epoxy Resin, ‘grown’ using a stereo lithography machine, & gives Robonaut the rugged design required for protection from collisions.

4) Body [5] [9]

Robonaut’s body is designed to house a Computer brain & a rechargeable power source, enabling tetherless operation. Its torso consists of a structural aluminum endoskeleton  covered by a protective shell. The endoskeleton terminates in a mounting flange for each robot limb, providing convenient locations for 3 six-axis load cells used to measure external forces affecting the robot. When the distal end of the Tail is held fixed, it becomes a leg capable of repositioning the body. In this configuration the Tail sensor measures the external forces acting on the arms, the head & the outer shell. When contact does occur, all the three load cells may be used together to classify the collision as either internal or external & to estimate the contact force & location.

For added protection, the body is covered with a custom-fitted fabric skin designed to contain electrical wire harnesses while keeping foreign material out of the joints. The torso section also contains a subcutaneous layer of foam padding designed to absorb impact energy while permitting contact forces to build up gradually.

The outer shell is dual purpose:-

Ø  It conceals the fragile electronic components & wire bundles, which would otherwise present a serious entanglement hazard.

Ø  It softens collision impact through a combination of a padded jacket & a floating suspension.

Arrays of tactile sensors are installed on the outer walls of the torso shells, below the skin. These sensors sense the contact that occurs between the arm (or objects) & the torso, & manage that contact for best effect. This gives Robonaut the versatility needed to work in unstructured environments.

            Robonaut’s carbon fiber shells are completed with a Backpack that covers & protects the avionics mounted on the robot’s back.

 Both, the torso & the backpack are split into front & back halves to permit easy access to internal electronics (Fig.8).

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V.        ROBONAUT’S CONTROL SYSTEM & OPERATION

1) Control System Architecture [3] [5]

The overall control architecture is based on the concept of sub-autonomies, which are used to build the main system. Each sub-autonomy is a self-contained peer system, which interacts with other peers. These autonomies combine controllers, safety systems, low-level intelligence & sequencing.

Consider the Force Controller sub-autonomy (Fig.9). The force safety system is an integral part of the sub-autonomy. Its limits are controlled by the force sequencer, which configures the sub-autonomy for the selected force mode. When the safety system detects a problem, an input prompts a design criteria. Similarly, when a mode change occurs the force sequencer handles an orderly configuration change of the force control sub-autonomy. The mode of the joint control system required to implement the force mode is decided by the force sequencer & is sent to the joint control sub-autonomy.

`System sub-autonomies include task sequences, Cartesian control, vision, teleoperator interface, joint control & grasping. Higher level sub-autonomies make decisions as to what services the lower level sub-autonomies need to provide to implement the required tasks. Each sub-autonomy handles its own internal safety & decision making. If a failure occurs, a lower sub-autonomy can request a shutdown or reconfiguration from a higher level sub-autonomy without a contagion effect. This is advantageous as each sub-autonomy can be developed & tested individually, enhancing the object oriented aspect of the system.

                                         

2) Computing Environment [5]

The real-time computing platform for Robonaut is the PowerPC processor. The computers & their required I/O devices are connected via a VME backplane. The processors run the VxWorks real-time operating system.

The software for Robonaut is written in C & C++. ControlShell provides a graphical development environment, which enhances the understanding of the system & code reusability.

3) Software Development / Rapid Software Prototyping [5]

System models and controller designs developed in Matlab are converted to C code directly by using the Matlab Real-Time workshop. This capability to rapidly produce code directly from verified system results allows many different techniques to be tried on hardware.

The Robonaut program also uses the Cooperative Manipulation Testbed (CMT) facility (Fig 10} which is a similar/dissimilar arrangement that allows testing of homogenous and heterogenous tasks.. The CMT is made up of three manipulators and their tooling. The three manipulators are seven degree of freedom devices. Two manipulators are identical while the third is a larger, scaled version of the others. The smaller manipulators have three fingered hands for tooling. This flexible tooling allows the manipulators to handle a wide variety of tasks. The larger manipulator has a quick-change mechanism allowing it to autonomously change special purpose end-effectors. All manipulators have six axis end-effector force/torque sensors and joint torque sensors for high bandwidth force control. The computing and development environment for CMT is identical to the Robonaut system for rapid software transfer, develop and test software and controls.

4) Telepresence [5] [8]

This is a technique that establishes remote control of Robonaut’s subsystems & enables the human operator to maintain situation awareness. The goal of telepresence is to provide an intuitive, unobtrusive, accurate & low-cost method for tracking operator motions & communicating them to the robotic system. The components used in Robonaut’s telepresence system (Fig.11) include Helmet Mounted Displays (HMD), force & tactile feedback gloves & posture trackers.

Telepresence uses virtual reality display technology to visually involve the operator in the robot's workspace. The teleoperator virtually takes the place of the robot. Visual feedback is provided by a stereo display helmet and includes live video from Robonaut's head cameras. The HMD provides a view into the robot's environment, facilitating intuitive operation and natural interaction with the work site.

Controlling Robonaut's highly dexterous fingers and hands is made possible by mapping the motions of the teleoperator's fingers onto the hand and finger motions of Robonaut. Finger tracking is accomplished through glove based finger pose sensors. Bend sensitive materials are used to track the orientation of each of the fingers. The information is used to command the action of Robonaut's fingers.

Force sensors are built into Robonaut's hands. The forces imparted on Robonaut's fingers can be displayed to the teleoperator by means of a mechanical exoskeleton worn by the teleoperator.

Arm, torso and head tracking is accomplished with the use of magnetic based position and orientation trackers. Mapping the motions of the human appendages to the motions of Robonaut's arms and head is accomplished similarly to the way the finger tracking is performed.

5) Control Electronics (Avionics) [5]

Robonaut Avionics has been so developed as to create tightly integrated electronics and mechanisms to reduce the volume of external electronics boxes, as well as the size and number of the cable harnesses needed to transmit signals throughout the system. The avionics consists of the following four main subsystems:

(a) Embedded Motor Control:

3-axis FPGA motor controllers coupled with hybrid 3-axis motor drivers have been used to efficiently package the motor control for 14 degrees of freedom in each dexterous hand & wrist module. This limits the number of wires for the motor control of Robonaut to just over 75. The hand motors are clustered in four triple-motor packs and each motor pack is interfaced to a 3-axis hybrid power driver and FPGA using flexible printed circuit boards (PCBs) and nano- connectors. The two wrist motors, which control pitch and yaw, are integrated with two single axis motor drivers. The FPGA motor control PCB has surface mount device (SMD) components on both sides. The hybrid motor driver is rated to deliver 2A continuously at 28 VDC. The flexible PCB serves as the interconnect between the three motor pack, the hybrid motor driver and the FPGA controller. Nano-connectors provide the 28VDC power and FPGA data interface, the hybrid motor driver is connected to the outside of the flex circuit for good thermal conductivity to the forearm structure.

(b)Data Acquisition & Sensory Input:

The two Robonaut hand/wrist modules contain 84 sensors for feedback and control, 60 of which are analog. Each degree of freedom has a motor position sensor, a joint force sensor, and a joint absolute position sensor. The two arm modules contain 90 sensors, 80 of which are analog. Each actuator contains a motor incremental position sensor, redundant joint torque sensors, redundant joint absolute position sensors, and four temperature sensors distributed throughout the joint. Robonaut’s data acquisition system (DAS) has been integrated with the analog sensors and the brainstem computers. The DAS has the capability to accept 48 channels of strain gage input, 32 channels of programmable 0-5V analog input, 96 channels of fixed 0-5V analog input, and 16 channels of thermocouple input.

Besides, Robonaut has 5 six-axis force/moment sensors (FMS) to enable endpoint and localized contact force sensing. The FMS are located in the forearms, shoulders, and upper torso. The FMS interface directly to the brainstem computer, having internal signal processing separate from the DAS.

 (c) Power Distribution & Control:

Power to the arm & waist brakes is implemented with computer & manual override shutdown controls. A manual enable switch is also included for each brake to facilitate partial element testing & reconfiguration. One or more humans are required to be involved in console & work area monitoring, & provide the safety backup to the main computers, or teleoperator error.

(d) Brainstem Data Processing:

The Robonaut computer chassis is 6U VME based & contains three 604 PowerPC computer boards, & several I/O boards to perform external data communication. This will improve system performance by reducing the CPU overhead for bus communications & performing local I/O stream data processing.

6) Mobility [5]

The choice of Robonaut’s mobility platform heavily depends upon the physical conditions into which the robot will be deployed. For extra-vehicular activity (EVA) it will be tethered to the space shuttle/station. Hence, its ‘Tail’ will provide adequate support. Besides this, Robonaut also has a two-piece cart interface . The interface attaches the body-interconnecting node to a welded steel pedestal suspended on top of a four-wheeled cart

. Manually propelled, a mobile Robonaut can easily be moved between rooms for different assembly, diagnostic & servicing operations within the space station or for future use on the surface of another planet.

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VI.       TESTS PERFORMED ON ROBONAUT [5]

The following tests were performed on Robonaut in NASA’s Dexterous Robotics Lab (DRL):

Task: Zero Gravity Climbing

·         To emulate zero gravity a mockup was built of the exterior of a spacecraft and mounted on a boom that is balanced with counterweights to allow it frictionless movement. If Robonaut pushes it, it falls away. This is dynamically equivalent to Robonaut pushing off from a spacecraft and falling away into space, allowing Robonaut to demonstrate climbing even though it is fixed at the hips to a test stand. Robonaut was shown to be able to climb across the surface of the mockup, using EVA handrails for grasp points. Climbing techniques were demonstrated for improving pace, and the impedance control modes for the arms were shown to improve performance when Robonaut held the mockup with a dual arm stance.

Task: Tool Exchange

• Robonaut was operated in an autonomous mode. The task was initiated with subsequent voice commands, asking the robot for a tool, and Robonaut finding that tool, grasping it, and handing it to the human commander. The interactions between the adjacent person and the robot were primarily in the form of communication (voice commands, voice syntheses back from the robot), but also involved a simple form of physical contact, at the points of tool exchange.

Task: Soldering Wires

• For Soldering it takes one hand to hold each of the wires, a third to hold the soldering iron, and a fourth to hold a piece of solder. Instead of using two adjacent humans, Robonaut was used through teleoperation to assist the human. In this task, the human steps up to the robot, and tells the teleoperator what they are going to accomplish. The human hands the robot each wire, then directs (through voice and gesture) the robot to put the wires together, while the human gets the solder and soldering iron. Both agents complete their parallel tasks, then the human solders the wires together, with  all six hands (two human, two robot, two remote human) working together.

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VII.     ALTERNATIVE APPLICATIONS FOR ROBONAUT:-

Robonaut has been primarily developed for assisting astronauts in repair of satellites & space stations by virtue of it`s capabilities in unstructured and hazardous environments. These capabilities will make it the obvious choice in the following fields :-

♠   exploration of other planets

♠   operations in hazardous locations such as mines, volcanoes, petroleum refineries and nuclear power plants

♠   health industry

♠   mining industry

♠   underwater surveying  and maintenance activities

♠   surveillance and guard duty

♠   construction industry

♠   firefighting

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   VIII.    ADVANTAGES OF ROBONAUT [9] [11]:

1)      Robonaut will help cut down on human spacewalk, hence reducing risk to an astronaut’s life.

2)      Robonaut`s is replaceable whereas loss of human life cannot be compensated.

3)      Robonaut can go into active mode almost without notice whereas a human is required to become acclimatized before being sent into hazardous situation.

4)      Robonaut is tireless whereas humans are easily prone to fatigue.

5)      The costs involved in training and equipping a human astronaut are enormous, almost around US$ 12 million per astronaut. Robonaut`s development cost is less than half of this – US$ 4 million. The benefit is obvious.

6)      Robonaut is programmed to be dispassionate whereas one has to contend with the “human factor” amongst human astronauts.

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IX.       CONCLUSION:

The architecture of Robonaut’s Anatomy & Control System appears to comply with advanced concepts and procedures that are designed to replace complex robots by simpler ones to achieve the desired goal. Notwithstanding the various components used to maintain its compactness, Robonaut has managed to retain simplicity & and an effective user-interface. Its use for Extra-Vehicular Activity can greatly reduce the risk to which Astronauts are presently exposed. Not only will it be able to lighten the work schedule of a manned space mission, a time will come when it will be able to travel to environs too hostile or too distant for human explorers.

Robonaut’s features make it a milestone in the future of Space Exploration.  

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variable air volume system

1.0 INTRODUCTION

 While the most important function of any variable air volume (VAV) system is to provide a high quality environment for building occupants, this critical function rarely receives the attention it deserves. As a result, basic control strategies for terminal VAV boxes have seen little significant change since the introduction of pressure independent box control more than 30 years ago.

However, by applying more effective operating strategies available with modern digital controls, designer can offer enormous improvements in building comfort and occupant control enhancement that will improve the comfort   and climate in commercial buildings.

                                  

2.0 VAV SYSTEM

2.1 DISCRIPTION:

VAV systems are designed to supply only the volume of conditioned air to a space that is needed to satisfy the load. Fan energy is saved when the volume of air handled by the fan is reduced. Air volume control is accomplished by installing modulating dampers, or in some cases, an air valve, in the supply duct to each zone. As the room temperature demand becomes satisfied, the thermostat signals the damper to move the supply air zone valve toward the closed position.

When zone valves are throttled, the static pressure in the supply duct changes. A static pressure sensor located in the supply duct senses the static pressure change, and either increases or decreases the airflow from the source, using variable speed control or dampers on the main air supply fan.

A key component in the VAV system is the air valve. It is commonly installed inside an insulated sheet metal box suspended in a ceiling plenum. The air valve has a damper that regulates the airflow in response to the room's thermostat. A multi-port pressure-sensing ring provides both accurate airflow sensing and control in response to duct static pressure. As VAV systems have evolved, so have the terminals. There are six popular VAV systems. They are:

·         Shutoff

·         VAV Reheat

·         Parallel Fan Powered

·         Series Fan Powered

·         Dual Duct

·         Changeover/Bypass

2.2 APPLICATION CONSIDERATION:

There are many factors to consider when designing VAV systems. Here are a few:

1.      VAV systems are popular because they can easily accommodate added control zones.

2.      Small zones contribute to precise temperature control, which facilitates occupant comfort. However, the costs increase with the number of zones.

3.      Air distribution by diffuser at varying velocities is another important consideration with VAV systems. 

4.      One method of increasing zone airflow during light cooling loads is to design an intelligent control scheme that resets the leaving air temperature off the coil upward. This method will circulate more air at higher temperatures, and will save energy.

5.      Building pressure control is especially important in VAV systems. The exhaust fan is modulated, as necessary, to maintain a fixed, slightly positive space pressure.

2.3 TYPES OF VAV SYSTEM:

2.3.1 REHEAT VAV:

This system is generally used in cooling-only applications, that is, areas not normally needing heat during occupied hours. Where significant skin heating loads are common, perimeter radiant heat is added under windows to prevent cold down drafts.

Instead of locating heat within the zone, a VAV reheat system places heat within the VAV terminal, most commonly in the terminal's outlet.                            The heat can be supplied by hot water, steam or an electric coil.                                                                                       

 To ensure sufficient airflow, the air valve damper will typically have an adjustable minimum stop. This system type is often selected when system first cost is a primary driving force.

2.3.1.1 REHEAT VAV – ADVANTAGES:

1.      The major equipment is centrally located. This permits operation and maintenance to take place outside of occupied areas.

2.      Temperature control for even a large number of zones is relatively inexpensive. Plus, this system can accommodate simultaneous heating and cooling. Heating and cooling coils won't be fighting each other.

3.      It's very flexible. The system can be subdivided or expanded into new zones to fit building remodeling or additions easily and inexpensively.

4.      This system can save money by:

• Modulating the fans. Fans consume a significant portion of the energy in the building, and VAV system fans run at substantially lower volumes most of the time. This offers the potential for significant energy savings.
• Taking advantage of a building's heating and cooling diversity. This can lower the system's first cost, as well as reduce energy consumption because it is using smaller equipment at more efficient part-load conditions.
• And, isolating and shutting down unoccupied areas of the building.

5.      Since the system will most often operate below the design condition, noise levels will usually be lower than specifications.

6.      VAV boxes with high minimum stops may be ideal for areas where constant airflow and dehumidification are required.

2.3.1.2 REHEAT VAV – DISADVANTAGES:

1.      Accessibility to terminal units is important. This means architects and mechanical and structural designers must carefully coordinate their work.

2.      Each terminal unit has an air valve, which requires either electrical or pneumatic service.

3.      Each terminal unit has a heating coil, which requires utility service and maintenance.

4.      The system requires diffusers that can provide adequate distribution characteristics over a wide range of airflows.

5.      During the heating mode, the primary airflow is first cooled and then reheated resulting in increased energy consumption.

2.3.2 PARALLEL FAN POWERED VAV:

The parallel fan powered VAV terminal is a common system design. In this configuration the cooling air valve is first modulated to a predetermined minimum position (it can be completely closed). Then the terminal fan and heat are energized consecutively as the temperature in the space continues to drop. In this configuration, the primary air does not pass through the terminal unit's fan.

When no heat is needed, the local parallel fan is off and a back draft damper is closed to prevent cool air entry into the return plenum. When little or no air is flowing to the VAV zone, and the zone temperature drops below set point, the local parallel fan is turned on and the back draft damper opens. Warm recirculated plenum air is then mixed with the minimum flow of cool primary air and delivered to the zone at a predetermined minimum constant air volume. Additional heat can also be provided, when specified, by a heating coil located at the leaving airside of the unit.

A major benefit of parallel fan powered terminal units is that the secondary fan motor runs only when primary air tempering is required. Also, the terminal fan requires no special interlock with the central air handler because it sits outside the primary air stream. Another benefit is that the heat of the plenum (due mainly to lighting) can be used for zone tempering.

2.3.2.1 PARALLEL FAN POWERED VAV – ADVANTAGES:

1.      The major equipment is centrally located. 

2.      Temperature control for even a large number of zones is relatively inexpensive. Plus, this system can accommodate simultaneous heating and cooling. Heating and cooling coils won't be fighting each other.

3.      The fan powered VAV box can take advantage of the heating effect of lights to reduce building heating requirements.

4.      It's very flexible. 

5.      This system can save money by:

o    Modulating the fans. 

• Taking advantage of a building's heating and cooling diversity. 
• And, isolating and shutting down unoccupied areas of the building.

6.      Since the majority of the operation will be below design conditions, the noise level will often be lower than specified at design.

2.3.2.2PARALLEL FAN POWERED VAV– DISADVANTAGES:

            Accessibility to terminal units is important. This means architects and mechanical and structural designers must carefully coordinate their work.

1.      Each terminal unit has a fan and filter, which require electric service as well as periodic maintenance.

2.      Each terminal unit has an air valve, which requires either electrical or pneumatic service.

3.      The system requires diffusers that can provide adequate distribution characteristics over a wide range of airflows.

2.3.3 SERIES VAV:

Series fan powered terminal units are commonly used in VAV zones that not only require heat during occupied hours, but also constant volume air delivery. With this system the terminal unit fan is in series with the central fan. Therefore, primary air from the central fan always passes through the terminal unit fan. The local series fan is generally sized for 100 percent zone airflow since all primary airflow passes through it. This secondary fan operates whenever there is a call for airflow to the zone. This ensures a constant flow of air, but the temperature of the air varies.

As the zone is cooling requirement decreases, the valve's damper closes. As the damper closes, the air mixture supplied to the zone contains less cool air and more warm recirculated plenum air. The heating coil located at the leaving airside of the unit can provide additional heat.

Series fan powered terminals are often selected due to the advantage of constant air delivery to the zone, while still benefiting from the energy saving associated with VAV at the main air handler. Series terminal may be used throughout the entire building or they may be selectively applied in areas where constant airflow is desirable, such as washrooms, entranceways, hallways, atriums, and conference rooms.

2.3.3.1 SERIES VAV –ADVANTAGES:

1.      The major equipment is centrally located. 

2.      Temperature control for even a large number of zones is relatively inexpensive. Plus, this system can accommodate simultaneous heating and cooling. Heating and cooling coils won't be fighting each other.

3.      The fan powered VAV box can take advantage of the heating effect of lights to reduce building heating requirements.

4.      It's very flexible.

5.      This system can save money by:

o    Modulating the fans. 

• Taking advantage of a building's heating and cooling diversity.
• And, isolating and shutting down unoccupied areas of the building.

6.      Since the majority of the operation will be below design conditions, the noise level will often be lower than that specified at design.

2.3.3.2 SERIES VAV – DISADVANTAGES:

1. Accessibility to terminal units is important. This means architects and mechanical and structural designers must carefully coordinate their work.
2. Each terminal unit has a fan and filter, which require electric service as well as periodic maintenance.
3. Each terminal unit has an air valve, which requires either electrical or pneumatic service.

2.3.4 DUEL DUCT VAV:

Dual duct terminals units have two air valves in a common VAV box enclosure: one controls cool primary air and the other controls warm air. This system provides variable air volume as well as variable temperature. With the dual duct system, adjustable air mixing point is provided to minimize air movement when the unit changes over between cooling and heating, and vice versa. Terminals are connected to temperature sensors located in the zone.

Dual duct systems can be very energy efficient when there is little call to mix cool and heated air, and separate supply fans are utilized for heating and cooling. A major shortcoming of single-zone systems is that the heating and cooling capacity supplied to each comfort zone cannot be adjusted to match changing load conditions within the zone. As a result, although the central thermostat can be satisfied, individual zone comfort is often compromised.

 

2.3.5 CHANGEOVER/BYPASS VAV SYSTEMS:

When first cost is key, the changeover/bypass systems can provide temp. Control to each zone in the building, while using a typical single-zone air conditioning unit. This system is called changeover/bypass because it changes over between heating and cooling operation and uses a bypass loop to allow constant volume fans on air conditioning equipment while delivering variable air volume to the zone. Many single-zone applications utilize direct expansion refrigeration systems that will not tolerate large reductions in airflow. A central system controller monitors the heating and/or cooling needs of all comfort zones and automatically changes system operation from heating to cooling, or vice versa as necessary, to satisfy the needs of the zones. Instead of using a single-zone sensor to determine heating or cooling, each zone has a thermostat.

The central system controller can be programmed to weight zones in order of importance to decide if the central air conditioning unit should be providing heating or cooling. The central system controller also senses the supply airflow rate and modulates a supply air bypass damper to maintain the required airflow through the air conditioning unit. The air terminal unit used with this system is similar in function to the shutoff terminal. The unit controller is typically connected to a zone thermostat that provides input for the zone controller to modulate the zone control damper.

2.3.5.1 CHANGEOVER/BYPASS VAV SYSTEMS

 - APLLICATION CONSIDERATIONS:

A changeover/bypass VAV system has many of the same application guidelines as the more traditional VAV systems. However, there is one additional consideration, thermal zoning. A changeover/bypass VAV system cannot accommodate simultaneous cooling and heating demands on the same unit, For applications requiring heat on demand when the air conditioning unit is in the cooling mode, duct heating coils can be installed and controlled from the zone damper controller and zone thermostat.

This does not limit this system to small buildings. Larger office buildings, schools, and manufacturing facilities can be served as long as the building can be thermally zones to accommodate the systems capabilities, i.e. zones should have similar thermal loading characteristics. Each thermal zone is then assigned a heating and cooling unit, which serves a number of individua1 changeover/bypass VAV terminals.

                             3.0 VAV ZONE CONTROL:

VAV systems use terminal VAV boxes that typically serve zones consisting of two or more offices or open areas of five or more occupants. The average VAV zone size in commercial office buildings is usually between 500 and 800 sq ft. in areas, and most zones are controlled with a single space temperature sensor. This space temp sensor regulates the flow of primary air from the VAV box in response to space temperature compared to a zone temperature set point. Pressure independent VAV box controls modulate the airflow in range bounded by minimum and maximum airflow rates. Many VAV systems are designed to operate with a fixed supply air temperature (usually 13ºC), or with a supply air temperature reset over a limited range (e.g.13 ºC to 15. 5ºC). Fig. 1 & 2 show typical VAV zone configurations used in commercial building. In fig.1 VAV box serves perimeter offices and in fig.2 it serves open office area. In both figures, a single temperature sensor is used to control the VAV box. Occupancy sensors may exercise lighting control as shown in figure 1 & 2, by wall switches, or by a separate digital lighting control system. Regardless of the method of lighting control, it is most commonly completely separate from   HVAC control at the zone level as shown in figures 1 & 2.

As they lay out VAV zones, designers should be mindful that comfort issues continue to be the no one complaint occupants have about their office space. Furthermore, actual thermal conditions in large areas of commercial buildings are often outside accepted comfort limits. Simple steps that can improve zone comfort should always be considered. The layouts in figures 1 &2 have many problems that can adversely affect comfort and can be mitigated with improved controls.

Location of the temperature sensors for each VAV box is a common problem. In office areas, the largest or more representative office usually is chosen. In open areas without fixed partitions, a nearby wall or building column as shown in fig. 2 is generally selected. Using only a single temperature sensor for multiple offices risks extended periods of poor comfort in the offices without sensors. Offices are often located around perimeter of the building. When VAV systems were first introduced, the building envelope dominated the variability of thermal loading of these spaces. So long as long offices were on the same exposure, a single sensor was adequate to regulate conditions in all the offices because the thermal load was expected to be pretty much same for all the offices due to their common exterior exposure. That logic is no longer valid for modern designs Envelop losses have been much reduced in recent years. While lighting loads and many office appliance loads have also decreased, the density of people and appliances in offices has generally increased, and the variability in internal loads among offices is far greater due to improved local controls such as occupancy sensors for lighting and standby modes for office equipments.

Imagine an occupant is away for the day & the temperature sensor is located in his or her office (fig 1). The office is vacant with lights off & door & Window blinds close. It is likely the other offices will be out of acceptable comfort range & their occupants will have comfort complaints during that day due to the significant variance of heat loads in those spaces compared to the one in witch the sensor is located.

Another problem is the isolation of the HVAC& lighting systems typical of most building controls. In fig1&2, the lights will react promptly to occupancy. However, because of building thermal inertia & the nature of zone controls, substantial portion of a building must become unoccupied for long periods before the reduced cooling load leads to a reduction in HVAC energy. This wastes energy & leads to discomfort from swings & variations in temperature throughout the building. Furthermore, no mechanism exists to direct comfort cooling resources specifically to the areas of the building that are occupied.

Cool & cold weather operation also can cause comfort problems. Unless fan-powered VAV box or high minimum airflows are used, “dumping” often occurs at low cooling load conditions. Dumping occurs if diffusers are not carefully selected for the minimum flow and the flow among the diffusers is not kept in balance. In such conditions, the lower temp primary air fails to mix with room air due to the low exit velocities from the diffuser at minimum flow conditions. Without mixing, the dense primary air falls directly on the occupants, causing discomfort. Even when dumping does not occur, the low supply airflow may cause supply air to inadequately mix with room air. Comfort problems associated with VAV systems have become more pronounced in the last decade.

   4.0 DESIGNING MORE EFFECTIVE VAV ZONE SYSTEM:

                        Research and testing has shown that operating VAV systems with a minimum supply temp of 10°C that is adjusted upward when cooling demand falls usually results in a much more efficient and cost effective system than employing a fixed 13°C supply air temp. Field experience indicates when the controls of poorly performing VAV systems are reconfigured with optimization control to maximize operating efficiency under all condition; the result is a supply air temperature that changes with cooling load. Such optimization frequently yields the lower supply air temperatures suggested by this research along with reduced airflow at peak load Conditions.

            Freely optimized controls of conventionally designed systems yield supply air temperature that usually vary from about 10°C to 16°C. This optimized operation with adjustable or floating supply air temp. Offers improved comfort conditions due to greater air circulation & less risk of dumping during cooler weather, which leads to more uniforms space conditions at all times. Also, lower temp air may be used to reduce in door humidity during humid outdoor conditions. Finally for many system type, the implication of floating supply air temp strategies significantly improves the energy performance of the over all comfort system.

                      When VAV systems are designed with adjustable or floating supply air temp control strategies, thought has to be given to how the VAV zones and boxes are sized. Currently, VAV boxes usually are sized based on a singe point of operation: maximum zone load at designed supply air temp. However, we can adjustable supply air temp and optimized control, the greatest zone airflow requirement may not occur at pick load conditions. Table 1 shows air flow requirements at various load conditions for typical zones in a VAV system with adjustable supply air temp .The figures ware developed assuming the same pick load for each zone. Airflows have been calculated by first estimating the highest supply air temp that could occur at 70% zone cooling load and that air flow requirement at this load point is about 25% greater than at peak load. For interior zones, the peak airflows requirement is about 40% greater than at designed conditions.

                        When designing for adjustable or floating supply air temp, the designer needs to develop charts like these for typical perimeter and interior zones. Then, designers must size VAV boxes that serve those zones for the highest airflow that may be required. While the supply air reset scheme should be developed so that the peak airflow demand can always satisfy the building, some areas of the building may require higher airflows under non-design conditions when the supply air temp has been reset upward.

                         Designers also need to take care when sizing system duct work and zone components to ensure that they are adequate to provide properly distribute the require air flow at park load conditions when the supply air temperature may be above the minimum. Unless the reset scheme is developed carefully to minimize the higher part load air flow requirements in areas of the building, the potential savings from smaller size fan and duct work possible with the lower design supply air temperature can be compromised.

          When a VAV system with adjustable supply air temperature is used, the control of the VAV box dampers must also be given special attention. Control of the primary air damper is typically bounded by preset minimum and maximum airflows, and the airflow set point is based on space temperature vs. Set point for the zone. The minimum airflow rate is usually based on outdoor air ventilation requirements. However, when the outside air content of the primary air stream and the temperature of the primary supply air are both design to be variable, neither of these air flow limits nor the damper control algorithm should be fixed. Instead the box maximum and minimum and damper control can be continuously calculated and adjusted based on the status of the space served, the percent outside air in the primary air stream, and the temp of the primary air. Such calculation and adjustment can be easily made since the information required to make such adjustments is readily available over the control network. The resulting box damper control for the South Perimeter zone analyze in table 1 is shown in figure 3.

Figure 3 illustrates the use of “cooling effect” damper control to replace conventional box damper control when proportional-only control is used to modulate airflow with respect to space temp error from set point. However, the technique also can be used when full PID or other control techniques are applied to modulate the VAV box damper. Cooling effect control results in more stable VAV system operation and better comfort stability throughout the building when adjustable primary air temp is used because it maintain a constant rate of cooling into those VAV zones that are in balance while supply air temp is changing.                             

                                   

                 

5.0 INTEGRATING TEMPERATURE AND OCCUPANCY CONTROL:

Upgrading VAV system design with adjustable supply air temp and “cooling effect” control of VAV boxes has the potential to yield large zone comfort improvements. Today’s high level and low cost of control technology is a mandate for designer to do much more to promote comfort in commercial buildings. The use multiple pace temp sensors to control each VAV box has been shown to be an effective and low cost upgrade to VAV terminal control. Consider the benefit of adding space temp sensors in each of the zones represented in the fig 1 and 2. In fig 1,adding temp sensors in the other two offices would permit the conditions in those offices to be incorporated in the control of VAV box and lead to generally more comfortable conditions in the office spaces.

In open office areas, multiple temp sensors also are helpful in improving comfort conditions. When fully configured and occupied, modular partitions and variation in loading often make the addition of space temp sensors helpful in open office areas. Also, it is often difficult to locate sensors optimally in open offices. Multiple sensors can help achieve more uniformly comfortable conditions throughout large office areas. For the open office area in fig 2, adding another temp sensor on the building column on the left may improve the comfort level in that zone.

However, the real benefits of improved sensing are most effectively realized when lighting and occupancy controls are incorporated along with additional temp sensors. Consider fig 4 and 5 in which the occupancy sensing and lighting control has been integrated into the VAV zone control along with additional temp sensors. The result is the development of “sub zones,” each of which has individual temp and occupancy sensing and lighting control. These “sub zones” permit a substantial increase in the level of comfort in buildings.

Consider the example cited earlier in which the large office in fig 1 is unoccupied. In the fig 4 configurations, the unoccupied condition of that office is included in the box control as well as the lighting control logic. Thus, not only is the lighting shut down in that office, but also the temp sensor in the office is removed from the zone comfort control algorithm. Only the temps of occupied offices (or open areas) are included in determining the box cooling effect required for the zone, leading to better comfort in the occupied spaces. If all three offices are become unoccupied, the box minimum airflow limit can be reduced or eliminated depending on conditions, and the cooling effect reduced to keep the offices in a “standby” condition to await the return of the occupants.

Integrating lighting and comfort control as shown in fig 4 and 5 can substantially improve building comfort at a small cost. Consider that the only additional devices required for the zone layouts shown in fig 1 and 2 are the extra space temp sensors. The occupancy sensing and lighting controls are already included in the fig 1 and 2 designs-they are just configured differently than in those designs. The primary change from fig 1 and 2 to fig 4 and 5 is from application-specific controllers with simple, fixed functions on each VAV box to programmable custom application controllers that permit each zone to adequately accommodate the number and variety of “sub zones” it serves. This change to more functional box controllers is fundamental to success of improving zone control.

 6.0 ROLE OF INTEROPERABILITY IN IMPROVING ZONE CONTROL:

The primary purpose of interoperability at the zone level is to provide grater choice for the zone control in each tenant’s space. Many DDC system manufacturers have a limited selection of controllers for zone control. Some offer only application specific controllers that lack the programming flexibility to implement cooling effect airflow control or to implement multiple “sub zones” with integrated lighting control. To improve the lighting and comfort control options available for building tenant’s, designers needs to specify and ensure the implementation of a true standard communication network at the zone level in order to broaden the zone controls choice to a variety of custom application control products that can be applied for zone control. Many new products incorporate standard communications such that they can interoperate with system of various manufacture, offer flexible programmability and incorporate sufficient I/O capabilities to work well in integrated lighting /comfort control strategies. Using recognizes standard for the zone communication network permits different zone control products of various manufacture and capabilities to serve the needs of individual tenants in multi-tenants buildings. 

                              Some never zone control products include a dedicated “sub network” for connecting sub zone devices such as occupancy sensors, temp sensors and lighting ballasts. This sub network approach to zone integration is shown in fig 6. Less wiring is involved in the sub network approach. Its costs compared to the hardwired solutions illustrated earlier depend on factor such as the levels of occupant interface and function that are desired from the sub network.

The use of sub network to connect the temp and occupancy sensors has a number of advantages compared to allocating a separate I\O point on the box controller for each device. Comparing fig 6 to fig 4 for show that the wiring is somewhat simpler. More important is the potential for additional device functionality. For example, a network-connected temp sensor may easily and in expensively in corporate user interface buttons and a display that permits the occupant to operate lighting independently of the occupancy sensor or to adjust the temp set point. With such network- connected devices, light can be shutdown for presentations, or dimming ballast lighting can be used to set the lighting level.

While the zoning shown in the figures does not provides true individuals control of thermal conditions in each sub zone, these simple configurations provide the ability for individuals occupants to express thermal comfort preferences, which are then consider by logic in the VAV box controller in establishing the cooling effect to be delivered to the zone. These “preference adjustments” will soon be accomplished over networks connected to the occupants ’PCs. But for the presents, a network connected local temp sensor device that incorporates pushbuttons and a small display is a simple, low-cost method of effectively connecting occupants to their environments to improve occupant comfort. 

7.0COST IMPLICATIONS OF INTEGRETED

 ZONE CONTROL:

 VAV zone control cost can vary substantially among buildings, but traditional zones control generally cost about $1.5 per sq feet in class “A” office building. Code compliant lighting controls about another $1 per sq feet. When VAV and lighting control is intergraded according to confirmations shown in fig 4 through 6, it is often possible to provide the superior environment and individual preference adjustment capabilities for a premium of as little $0.5 sq feet. This small premium can pay very substantial rewards for building owners in terms of attracting and retaining tenant’s.

            However, most enticing to the building owners is that the decision as to whether or not the cost is justified can be made on a tenant-by-tenant or zone by zone basis, and the premium can be included as a tenant cost. If the VAV system is designed with and effective adjustable or floating supply air temp controls strategy and with a zone control communication network that employees established communication standards, there is no need to incorporate a single HVAC and lighting control scheme in every zone. Rather, integrated lighting and HVAC with individual thermal and lighting level preference adjustment may be applied only where their applications will compare additional value for the tenant to justify its cost.           

                  8.0 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION:

VAV zone control strategies have not changed significantly in recent years, so change in overdue. To enhance energy optimization and comfort, and to make the important move toward connecting occupants with their comfort system, designers need to consider in corpora ting adjustable supply air temp and recognized standard control communications trunks in their VAV system design. Implementing a VAV system with adjustable supply air temp permits the use of a smaller air distribution system that saves cost without compromising building comfort or operating efficiency. Implementing zone control on a recognized standard network allows building owners and tenants to select from a growing variety of options for zone control that may include sub zone operation and individual preference adjustments. Once such a system is installed, it is up to the designer to help the building owner and tenants to select the right mix of lighting integration, occupant interface, and zone sensing to fit each zone control application.